Energy, the Environment, and Justice
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Fast Facts About
Energy, the Environment, and Justice
Energy and the environment are inextricably linked. Delivery of energy services (what humans want) is the leading source of greenhouse gas emissions, and our energy resource use affects water, land, and wildlife as well. All energy resources have environmental impacts, but some, namely fossil fuels, have more impacts than others.
The negative impacts of energy resource use disproportionately affect low-income communities and communities of color in the U.S. and globally. As our population grows and energy access increases, it is important to figure out how we will deliver energy services sustainably and in a way that addresses inequities in environmental impacts.
Global Population and Energy Use
Population Growth
(1950-2023)
⬆224% increase
(2.5 billion to 8.09 billion)
Energy Consumption Growth
(1950-2023)
⬆542% increase
(28,564 tWh to 183,230 tWh)
Energy Use is the Biggest Emitter of Greenhouse Gases
Burning a hydrocarbon leads to carbon dioxide production
CXHY + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Energy Use is the Primary Source of Air Pollution
Sulfur Oxides
Burning a hydrocarbon with contaminants:
S + O2 → SOx
>99%
from energy services
Nitrogen Oxides
More heat:
N2 + O2 → NOx
>99%
from energy services
Carbon Monoxide
Incomplete combustion:
CO2 + C → 2CO
92%
from energy services
Particulate Matter (e.g., PM10 and PM2.5*)
Particles of solids or liquids that are in the air from combustion sites or due to chemical reactions in the air with other pollutants.
85%
from energy services
*PM10 is 10 microns or less in size, while PM2.5 is 2.5 microns or less in size. PM2.5 is much worse for human health.
Health Impacts of Air Pollution
Asthma, respiratory illness, cardiovascular risk, organ damage, mental health challenges
Deaths from Air Pollution*
World 🌎
7-9 million deaths/year
U.S. 🇺🇲
100,000-200,000 deaths/year
Black people in the U.S. are
3x
more likely to die from air pollution than other groups
*Almost all deaths are from exposure to Particulate Matter
Spotlight: Much of the World Breathes Unsafe Air
90% of 138 studied countries and regions have air pollution levels above the World Health Organization's (WHO) safe limit for PM2.5 (5 µg/m³). The top five most air polluted countries* are:
| Rank | Country | PM2.5 (µg/m³) | Compared to WHO Limit |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Chad 🇹🇩 | 91.8 µg/m³ | 18x the safe limit |
| 2 | Bangladesh 🇧🇩 | 78.0 µg/m³ | 15x the safe limit |
| 3 | Pakistan 🇵🇰 | 73.7 µg/m³ | 14x the safe limit |
| 4 | Democratic Republic of the Congo 🇨🇩 | 58.2 µg/m³ | 11x the safe limit |
| 5 | India 🇮🇳 | 50.6 µg/m³ | 10x the safe limit |
To put this in context, the top two energy-consuming countries, China and the U.S., are ranked 21st (6x the safe limit) and 116th (1.4x the safe limit), respectively.
*Many of the world’s most air-polluted countries share common drivers, such as a reliance on wood and charcoal for heating and cooking, outdated and unregulated vehicles, poorly regulated industry, and widespread burning of trash and crop waste.
Water Impacts from Energy Production
- Thermoelectric Power Plant Cooling: >97% of the water withdrawn is returned to its source (e.g., river, lake, ocean), but it is typically 20°F hotter than when it was withdrawn, resulting in thermal pollution
- Irrigation: 38% of the water withdrawn is returned to its source
- Data is not currently available on how much of the water withdrawn is returned to its source for the other categories
Examples of Water Contamination Sources and Effects
Oil spills and coal ash → freshwater resource contamination and wildlife deaths
Fertilizer and pesticide runoff from biofuels → dead zones in the ocean
Land Impacts from Energy Production
| Resource | Life Cycle Land Requirements (m2/GWh/yr) | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Large Hydro | Total: 3,000 - 25,000 Fuel production: 0 |
|
| Wind | Total: 1,000 - 3,000 Fuel production: 0 |
|
| Solar | Total: 160 - 550 Fuel production: 0 |
|
| Coal | Total: 55 - 870 Fuel production: 50 - 840 |
|
| Nuclear | Total: 120 Fuel production:
Power plant area: 45 |
|
| Natural Gas | Total: 265 Fuel production:
Power plant area: 5 |
|
Energy Justice
Energy Justice
The goal of achieving equity in both the social and economic participation in the energy system, while also remediating social, economic, and health burdens on those historically harmed by the energy system
Sustainable Development
“Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”*
*Quoted definition from Our Common Future
Examples of Environmental Injustices
Both globally and within the U.S., people of color and disadvantaged communities are disproportionately impacted by the negative effects of climate change and environmental infrastructure. Due to the intentional siting of highways, mining areas, and power plants near these communities, pollution is more concentrated, temperatures are higher, and harmful waste is more present. Additionally, these communities often have reduced or no access to the energy services that infrastructure provides.
Impacts on Communities of Color
Black and Hispanic people in the U.S. are exposed to over
1.5x
more pollution than is caused by their consumption
Impacts of Redlining*
Surface temperatures in the U.S. are
5-13°F (3-7°C)
warmer in areas that were previously redlined
Impacts on Native Populations
Superfund sites** have been built within 10 miles of
47%
of Native American reservations in the United States, leading to excessive pollution exposure
Impacts of Global Demand for Minerals
While 76% of the world’s mined cobalt for renewable energy comes from the DRC, only
19%
of the population has access to electricity***
*The term “redlining” comes from maps drawn 85 years ago, partially on the basis of race, that were used by banks to discriminate and deny home loans to residents in low-income neighborhoods
** Superfund sites are locations polluted with hazardous or toxic materials. Superfund sites have been linked to adverse health effects including infant mortality, mental health, water and food-borne illness, and cancer
*** There have also been many human rights abuses, including forced eviction and physical assault, in order to expand mining sites
Drivers and Barriers to Reducing the Environmental Impacts of Energy Use
Drivers
- Negative human health and wildlife impacts from air, land, and water pollution
- Increased government environmental regulations and clean energy policies in some countries
- Global renewable energy resource growth driven by both competitive economics and supportive policies
- Use of new technologies such as carbon capture and scrubbers help reduce pollution
- Some governments are acknowledging and committing to correct environmental injustice issues (e.g., the EU’s Just Transition Mechanism)
Barriers
- Polluting sources such as coal plants are still being constructed and used
- Entrenched interest and dependence on fossil fuels
- Continued global pushback on action taken for reducing emissions
- Reliability concerns with renewables
- Renewable energy sources have some negative environmental impacts that, although low relative to fossil fuels, must be managed
Before You Watch Our Lecture On
Energy, the Environment, and Justice
We assign videos and readings to our Stanford students as pre-work for each lecture to help contextualize the lecture content. We strongly encourage you to review the Essential videos below before watching our lecture on Energy, the Environment, and Justice. Include the Optional and Useful resources based on your interests and available time.
Essential
- Beyond the Anthropocene - Johan Rockström. World Economic Forum. February 14, 2017. (21 min)
The Executive Director of the Stockholm Resilience Centre, Sweden, speaks on the necessary transformation towards global sustainability. - Finance Forum 2022 - Day 2 Plenary Keynote by Tony G. Reames (minutes 9-26 only). DOE. May 25, 2022. (17 min)
Dr. Reames, from the U.S. Department of Energy, speaks on ensuring access to energy efficiency for all.
Optional and Useful
- Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool. The Council on Environmental Quality. May 4, 2022.
Census tracts that are overburdened and underserved are highlighted as being disadvantaged on this interactive map.
Our Lecture on
Energy, the Environment, and Justice
This is our Stanford University Understand Energy course lecture on energy, the environment, and justice. We strongly encourage you to watch the full lecture to understand the environmental impacts of the energy resources we use and how those impacts have been disproportionately borne by underserved communities. For a complete learning experience, we also encourage you to watch / read the videos and readings we assign to our students before watching the lecture.
Presented by: Kirsten Stasio, Adjunct Lecturer, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University; CEO, Nevada Clean Energy Fund (NCEF)
Recorded on: April 11, 2025 Duration: 65 minutes
Additional Resources About
Energy, The Environment, and Justice
Stanford University
- Environmental Justice Working Group (EJWG)
- Earth Systems Program
- Dena Montague - Environmental justice
- Stanford Environmental Law Clinic
- Natural Capital Project
- Woods Institute for the Environment
- Precourt Institute for Energy
- Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve
- Sustainable Stanford
- Global Climate & Energy Project (GCEP)
- Mel Lane Student Grants Program
- Carnegie Science
Non-Governmental Organizations
- Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) Climate Justice
- Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) Environment, Equity, and Justice Center
- International Union for Conservation of Nature (ICUN)
- World Resources Institute (WRI) Climate Equity
- The Nature Conservancy
- Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) Environmental Justice and Embodied Carbon
- Sierra Club Environmental Justice
- Greenpeace USA Environmental Justice
- Earth Justice
- Environmental and Energy Study Institute Environmental Justice
- Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI)
- Conservation International
Fast Facts Sources
- Population Growth (1950-2023): Our World in Data. Population Growth.
- Energy Consumption Growth (1950-2023): Our World in Data. Energy Production and Consumption.
- GHG Emissions by Sector (2021): ClimateWatch. Historical GHG Emissions. 2024.
- CO2 Emissions by Electricity Source: United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). Carbon Neutrality in the UNECE Region: Integrated Life-cycle Assessment of Electricity Sources. 2021.
- Deaths from Air Pollution (World): World Health Organization. Air Pollution.
- Deaths from Air Pollution (U.S. 2015): Tessum et al. Inequity in consumption of goods and services adds to racial–ethnic disparities in air pollution exposure. 2019.
- Air Pollution Inequity: Geldsetzer et al. Disparities in air pollution attributable mortality in the US population by race/ethnicity and sociodemographic factors. 2024.
- Most Polluted Cities (2024): PR Newswire. 2024 IQAir World Air Quality Report Finds Only 17% of Global Cities Meet WHO Air Pollution Guideline, 2025; IQAir. 2024 World Air Quality Report. 2025; The World Bank. Accelerating Access to Clean Air For A Livable Planet. 2025.
- Water Withdrawals: USGS. Summary of Estimated Water Use in the United States in 2015.
- Land Impacts: Fthenakis & Kim. Land use and electricity generation: A life-cycle analysis. 2009.
- Impacts on Communities of Color: Tessum et al. Inequity in consumption of goods and services adds to racial–ethnic disparities in air pollution exposure. 2019.
- Redlining Impacts: Hoffman et al. The Effects of Historical Housing Policies on Resident Exposure to Intra-Urban Heat: A Study of 108 US Urban Areas. 2020.
- Native American Impacts: ArcGIS. Pollution in Indian Country. 2019.
- Minerals’ Impacts: Cobalt Institute. Quarterly Cobalt Market Update Overview 2024 Q4. 2025; International Trade Administration. Democratic Republic of the Congo - Energy. 2024; AP News. Congo communities forcibly uprooted to make way for mines critical to EVs, Amnesty report says. 2023.
More details available on request.
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